Purine nucleoside phosphorylase as enzymatic activator of nucleoside prodrugs

ABSTRACT

A process for inhibiting a mammalian cancerous cell or virally infected cell includes providing a  Trichomonas vaginalis  purine nucleoside phosphorylase enzyme or a tail mutant purine nucleoside phosphorylase enzyme in proximity to the mammalian cancerous cell or the virally infected cell and exposing the enzyme to a purine nucleoside phosphorylase enzyme cleavable substrate to yield a cytotoxic purine analog. The process includes introducing to the cell a vector containing the phosphorylase enzyme, or a DNA sequence coding for the same and delivering to the cell an effective amount of the substrate such as 9-(β-D-arabinofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine (F-araA).

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.14/154,936, filed Jan. 14, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S.Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/059,178, filed May 11, 2011, nowU.S. Pat. No. 8,628,767, issued on Jan. 14, 2014, that in turn is theU.S. national phase of PCT/US2009/054058, filed Aug. 17, 2009, whichclaims priority benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No.61/089,235, filed Aug. 15, 2008, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser.No. 61/225,012, filed Jul. 13, 2009, each of which is incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety.

GRANT REFERENCE

The research carried out in connection with this invention was supportedin part by grant CA119170 from the National Institutes of Health.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to a process of using tailed mutants and wild-typeTrichomonas vaginalis purine nucleoside phosphorylases as an enzymaticactivator for prodrug substrates and in particular to prodrug substratessuch as 9-(β-D-arabinofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine (F-araA, fludarabine)and 2-C1-2′-deoxyadenosine (C1-dAdo, cladribine).

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

A prodrug activation strategy for selectively impairing tumor cellsinvolves the expression of a gene encoding an exogenous enzyme in thetumor cells and administration of a substrate for that enzyme. Theenzyme acts on the substrate to generate a substance toxic to thetargeted tumor cells. This technique has advantages over the expressionof directly toxic genes, such as ricin, diphtheria toxin, or pseudomonasexotoxin. These advantages include the capability to: 1) titrate cellimpairment; 2) optimize therapeutic index by adjusting either levels ofprodrug or of recombinant enzyme expression; and 3) interrupt toxicityby omitting administration of the prodrug. In addition, this techniqueuses prodrugs with different effects on different cell types, allowingtreatment to be adjusted according to a specific disease state.

Enzymes useful in a prodrug activation approach have been described andinclude enzymes such as thymidine kinase, cytosine deaminase and purinenucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), as described in U.S. Pat. Nos.5,338,678; 5,552,311; 6,017,896 and 6,207,150. However, theeffectiveness of tumor treatment using prodrug activation techniques islimited in cases where side effects of substrate administration arepresent. For example, the prodrug ganciclovir, often used in combinationwith thymidine kinase, can cause unwanted immunosuppressive effects.

The search for a particular purine nucleoside phosphorylase withcleavage activity for the important chemotherapeutic F-araA has notpreviously been successful in part due to the large number of PNPcandidates that need to be surveyed and the difficulties surroundingisolating and expressing each PNP. Many microorganisms generate PNPscapable of cleaving adenine-containing nucleosides to adenine. Toillustrate, there are at least 17 microorganisms alone reported toexpress PNP including: Leishmania donovani; Trichomonas vaginalis;Trypanosoma cruzi; Schistosoma mansoni; Leishmania tropica; Crithidiafasciculata; Aspergillis and Penicillium; Erwinia carotovora; Helixpomatia; Ophiodon elongates (lingcod); E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium;Bacillus subtilis; Clostridium; mycoplasma; Trypanosoma gambiense; andTrypanosoma brucei.

Thus, there exists a need for a prodrug activation method for treatingtumors that improves efficacy and overcomes the problem of side effects.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A process is provided for inhibiting a cancerous cell by providing awild-type Trichomonas vaginalis purine nucleoside phosphorylase (Tv-PNP)enzyme in proximity to the cancerous cell and exposing the enzyme to asubstrate cleaved by the enzyme to yield a cytotoxic purine analog, thesubstrate being fludarabine, cladribine, analog of cordycepin, analog of2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine, 5′-methyl(talo)-6-methylpurine-riboside,5′-methyl(talo)-2′-deoxy-6-methylpurine-riboside,5′-methyl(allo)-6-methylpurine-riboside, 2-F-5′-deoxyadenosine, or2-F-α-L-lyxo-adenine. The Tv-PNP enzyme is provided by expression in thecancerous cell, or a cell proximal thereto, or is through administrationof the enzyme proximal to the target cell. Tailed mutant purinenucleoside phosphorylase (tm-PNP) enzymes derived from various organismsare also provided as novel compositions operative herein for cancer cellinhibition.

A commercial kit is provided for inhibiting a mammalian cancerous cellthat includes a Tv-PNP enzyme, a tm-PNP enzyme, or a vector containing aDNA sequence expressible in the cancerous cell and coding for a Tv-PNPenzyme, tm-PNP enzyme, or a combination thereof; and a substrate offludarabine, cladribine, analog of cordycepin, analog of2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine, 5′-methyl(talo)-6-methyl-purine-riboside,5′-methyl(talo)-2′-deoxy-6-methylpurine-riboside,5′-methyl(allo)-6-methylpurine-riboside, 2-F-5′-deoxyadenosine, or2-F-α-L-lyxo-adenine, or a combination of such substrates.

A composition of target cell lysate, Tv-PNP/tm-PNP and a prodrug thatwhen cleaved by a Tv-PNP/tm-PNP yields a cytotoxic cleavage productpurine analog is also provided. This composition is particularly usefulin directing subsequent therapies.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 depicts the kinetic parameters of F-araA with E. coli PNP andTv-PNP;

FIG. 2 depicts the effectiveness of F-araAMP (a prodrug or F-araA)against tumor xenographs in mice in which only 10% of the cells expressTv-PNP;

FIG. 3 is a restriction site map of an inventive vector clone denoted aspCR4blunt-TvPNP;

FIG. 4 is a restriction site map of an inventive adenovirus vectorexpressing Tv-PNP denoted as pACCMV-TvPNP and inclusive of the clone ofFIG. 3;

FIG. 5 is a restriction site map of an inventive vector lentivirusexpressing Tv-PNP with EGFP co-expression and denoted as pWPI(+)-TvPNPand inclusive of the clone of FIG. 3;

FIG. 6 is a restriction site map of an inventive vector lentivirusexpressing Tv-PNP absent EGFP co-expression and denoted as pHR′CMV-TvPNPand inclusive of the clone of FIG. 3;

FIG. 7 is an adenovirus expressible tm-PNP nucleotide sequence (SEQ IDNO: 6) mapping relative to a wild-type E. coli; and

FIG. 8 is a tm-PNP amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 8) encoded by thenucleotide sequence of FIG. 7 showing the resulting tail addition.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The subject of the present invention is a purine nucleosidephosphorylase isolated from T vaginalis. Purine nucleosidephosphorylases and nucleoside hydrolases are present in diverseorganisms illustratively including mammals such as humans, andmicroorganisms, such as Leishmania donovani; Trichomonas vaginalis;Trypanosoma cruzi; Schistosoma mansoni; Leishmania tropica; Crithidiafasciculata; Aspergillis and Penicillium; Erwinia carotovora; Helixpomatia; Ophiodon elongatus; Salmonella typhimurium; Bacillus subtilis;Clostridium; mycoplasma; Trypanosoma gambiense; Trypanosoma brucei;Sulfolobus solfataricus; and E. coli.

A nucleoside phosphorylase catalyzes the reaction: purinenucleoside+PO₄→ribose-1-PO₄ (or deoxyribose-1-phosphate)+purine base.The present invention provides nucleotide sequences and amino acidsequences encoding native Trichomonas vaginalis purine cleaving enzymesand tm-PNP sequences having surprisingly higher biological activity incleaving specific substrates compared to structurally related wild-typePNP enzymes from other organisms and the wild-type sequence from whichthe tailed mutation enzyme is derived, respectively.

The term “biological activity” as used herein is intended to mean ameasurement of the amount of end product produced by the reaction of aspecified amount of a purine cleavage enzyme in the presence of asubstrate in a period of time measured by appropriate method as shown inExample 2.

A compound that is a substrate for the enzyme to produce a cytotoxicpurine analog which impairs the metabolism, function, or replication ofa cell is referred to herein interchangeably as a “prodrug” or a“substrate.”

The term “pathogenic viral infection” as used herein is intended to meaninfection by a virus causing disease or pathological effects.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” as used herein is intended tomean a material that is not biologically or otherwise undesirable, whichcan be administered to an individual without causing significantundesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious mannerwith any of the other components of the pharmaceutical composition inwhich it is contained.

According to the present invention the cleavage of a prodrug by Tv-PNPor tm-PNP yields a cytotoxic purine analog that inhibits a cancerous (orvirally infected) target cell. It is appreciated that the cytotoxicpurine analog need not be generated within the cancerous cell andinstead a bystander effect exists in which the cytotoxic purine analoggenerated within a tumor cell can travel to neighboring tumor cells andconfer their destruction. The concentration of cytotoxic purine analogneeded to inhibit a virally infected or cancerous target cell depends onfactors including the identity of the cytotoxic purine analog,intercellular fluid exchange rate, rate of cytotoxic purine analogcellular membrane transport, and rates of incorporation into DNA or RNA,and effectiveness as an inhibitor of protein synthesis.

Tv-PNP or tm-PNP is operative to inhibit mammalian cancerous or virallyinfected target cells in vitro or in vivo and in a human or a non-humansubject. Tv-PNP or tm-PNP is delivered in vivo by any of the processesdetailed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,958,318 B2 as a substitute for the E. coliPNP described therein. These delivery processes illustratively includerecombinant viral vectors; Clostridium, Salmonella and E. coli bacterialvectors; antibody-conjugated liposomes; reintroduction of subject cellsgenetically modified to express the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP enzyme;lipofection; viruses such as retrovirus, adenovirus, herpes virus,measles virus, adeno-associated virus, or a vacuvirus; and directinjection of the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP enzyme into proximity to the mammaliancancerous cell.

The invention provides a method of at least inhibiting, and typicallykilling replicating or non-replicating, transfected or transducedmammalian cells and bystander cells through the following steps: (a)transfecting or transducing targeted mammalian cells with a nucleic acidencoding a Tv-PNP or tm-PNP or providing such enzyme directly inproximity to the targeted cells; and (b) contacting the targeted cellsexpressing or provided with the Tv-PNP cleavage enzyme with a substratefor the enzyme to produce a toxic purine base in quantities greater thanthat produced by wild-type or substitution E. coli PNP and other PNPsthereby killing the targeted cells and also bystander cells notexpressing or containing the cleavage enzyme. Thus, in the presence ofsubstrate, the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP cleavage enzyme produces a toxicproduct. The operation of the invention can occur in vitro or in vivo,with human or non-human mammalian or other cells.

As used herein the term “inhibiting” is an alteration of a normalphysiological activity. Specifically, inhibiting is defined as lysing,reducing proliferation, reducing growth, increasing or decreasing theexpression or rate of degradation of a gene, RNA, protein, lipid, orother metabolite, inducing apoptosis or other cell death mechanisms, orincreasing, decreasing, or otherwise altering the function of a proteinor nucleic acid.

In one embodiment of the present invention, the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP enzymeis provided by targeting the enzyme to the cells. More preferably, theTv-PNP or tm-PNP enzyme is targeted to the cells by conjugating theenzyme to an antibody.

The enzyme may be encoded by a gene provided to the cells. For example,the gene provided to the cells encodes Tv-PNP or tm-PNP and is operablylinked to a tyrosinase gene promoter. Alternatively, the gene isprovided in a carrier molecule such as polymeric films, gels,microparticles and liposomes.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of atleast inhibiting, and typically killing by lysis both replicating ornon-replicating targeted mammalian cells and bystander cells. Theprocess includes the steps of: (a) delivering the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP tothe targeted mammalian cells; and (b) contacting the targeted cells withan effective amount of a nucleoside substrate for the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP,wherein the substrate is relatively nontoxic to mammalian cells and iscleaved by Tv-PNP or tm-PNP to yield a purine base which is toxic to thetargeted mammalian cells and bystander cells in proximity thereto and ina quantity greater than that provided by wild-type or substitutionmutant E. coli PNP. Representative examples of purine analog substratesinclude fludarabine, cladribine, analog of cordycepin, analog of2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine, 5′-methyl(talo)-6-methylpurine-riboside,5′-methyl(talo)-2′-deoxy-6-methylpurine-riboside,5′-methyl(allo)-6-methylpurine-riboside, 2-F-5′-deoxyadenosine, or2-F-α-L-lyxo-adenine.

The present invention also provides a composition for killing targetedmammalian cells, inclusive of: (a) a Tv-PNP or tm-PNP enzyme thatcleaves a purine nucleoside substrate; and (b) an amount of the purinenucleoside substrate effective to kill the targeted cells when cleavedby the enzyme.

The present invention is also directed to a vector containing a DNAsequence coding for a Tv-PNP or tm-PNP protein where the vector iscapable of replication in a host and which includes in operable linkage:a) an origin of replication; b) a promoter; and c) a DNA sequence codingfor said Tv-PNP or tm-PNP protein. Preferably, the vector is aretroviral vector, an adenoviral vector, an adeno-associated viralvector, a herpes vector, a vacuvirus, a viral vector, or a plasmid.

The present invention is also directed to a host cell transfected withthe vector of the present invention so that the vector expresses aTv-PNP or tm-PNP protein. Preferably, such host cells are selected fromthe group consisting of bacterial cells, mammalian cells and insectcells.

It is appreciated in the inventive method that a host cell is optionallytransfected or transduced with a vector ex vivo or in vitro andsubsequently administered to a patient, preferably at or near a tumorsite or location of viral infection. Optionally, a cell is deliveredsystemically.

Some of the processes and compositions exemplified herein involvetransfecting cells with the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene and subsequentlytreating with a comparative nontoxic purine nucleoside prodrug that isconverted to a toxic purine analog. A particularly preferred prodrug isF-araA, but it is appreciated that other prodrugs are also operative inthe present invention.

Tv-PNP or tm-PNP differs from human PNP in its more efficient acceptanceof adenine and certain guanine-containing nucleoside analogs assubstrates and is shown herein to be surprisingly effective at cleavingparticular substrates compared to structurally similar PNPs of differentbacterial and parasitic origins. PNP expressed in tumor cells cleavesthe nucleoside, liberating a toxic purine analog. Purine analogs freelydiffuse across cell membranes in comparison to nucleoside monophosphatessuch as those generated using HSV Thd kinase that generally remaininside the cell in which they are formed. A toxic adenine analog formedafter conversion by Tv-PNP or tm-PNP can be converted by adeninephosphoribosyl transferase to toxic nucleotides and kill all transfectedcells, and diffuse out of the cell and kill surrounding cells that werenot transfected (bystander cells).

The inventive composition has utility as a biologically functionalsystem operable to produce destruction such as lytic destruction of atarget cancerous or virally infected cell. Illustratively, the inventivecomposition and method use the enzymatic action of Tv-PNP on a prodrugto yield a cytotoxic purine analog able to transit the cell membrane andcause cell lysis. By way of example, such a composition affordsinformation as to the copy number of Tv-PNP or tm-PNP enzymes presentper unit volume, while the molar ratio of prodrug: cytotoxic cleavageproduct therefrom is indicative of activity kinetics. These assayresults are readily obtained by conventional HPLC or other assays. Fortumor target cells, these results when coupled with time differentiatedtumor mass scans provide invaluable data as to the nature of subsequenttreatments with Tv-PNP or tm-PNP, adjunct chemotherapeutic, surgical, orradiation treatment, or a combination thereof.

Transcriptional Regulation of the PNP Encoding Sequence

In a preferred embodiment, Tv-PNP or tm-PNP is encoded on a prokaryoticgene such that the expression of the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP in mammalian cellsis achieved by the presence of a eukaryotic transcriptional regulatorysequence linked to the PNP-encoding sequences. The Tv-PNP or tm-PNP genecan illustratively be expressed under the control of strong constitutivepromoter/enhancer elements that are obtained within commercial plasmids(for example, the SV40 early promoter/enhancer (pSVK30 Pharmacia,Piscataway, N.J.), Moloney murine sarcoma virus long terminal repeat(pBPV, Pharmacia), mouse mammary tumor virus long terminal repeat (pMSG,Pharmacia), and the cytomegalovirus early promoter/enhancer (pCMVβ,Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.).

Selected populations of cells can also be targeted for inhibition ordestruction by using genetic transcription regulatory sequences thatrestrict expression of the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP coding sequence to certaincell types, a strategy that is referred to as transcription targeting. Acandidate regulatory sequence for transcription targeting preferablyfulfills two important criteria as established by experimentation: (i)the regulatory sequence directs enough gene expression to result in theproduction of enzyme in therapeutic amounts in targeted cells, and (ii)the regulatory sequence does not direct the production of sufficientamounts of enzyme in non-targeted cells to impair the therapeuticapproach. In this form of targeting the regulatory sequences arefunctionally linked with the Tv-PNP sequences to produce a gene that isactivated only in those cells that express the gene from which theregulatory sequences were derived. Regulatory sequences that have beenshown to fulfill the criteria for transcription targeting in genetherapy include regulatory sequences from the secretory leucoproteaseinhibitor, surfactant protein A, and α-fetoprotein genes. A variation onthis strategy is to utilize regulatory sequences that confer“inducibility” so that local administration of the inducer leads tolocal gene expression. As one example of this strategy,radiation-induced sequences have been described and advocated for genetherapy applications (Weichselbaum, et al., Int. J. Radiation OncologyBiol. Phys., 24:565-567 (1992)) and are operative herein.

Tissue-specific enhancer/promoters are operative in directing Tv-PNP ortm-PNP expression, and thereby Tv-PNP- or tm-PNP-mediated toxicity, tospecific tissues. For example, human tyrosinase genetic regulatorysequences are sufficient to direct Tv-PNP or tm-PNP toxicity tomalignant melanoma cells. Mouse tyrosinase sequences from the 5-primeflanking region (−769 bp from the transcriptional start site) of thegene are capable of directing reporter gene expression to malignantmelanoma cells. Although the mouse and human tyrosinase sequences in the5-prime flanking region are similar, Shibata et al., Journal ofBiological Chemistry, 267:20584-20588 (1992) showed that the human5-prime flanking sequences in the same region used by Vile and Hart(−616 bp from the transcriptional start site) did not confer tissuespecific expression. Although Shibata et al. suggested that the 5-primeflanking region would not be useful to target gene expression totyrosinase expressing cells (melanomas or melanocytes), a slightlydifferent upstream fragment from that used by Shibata et al. can in factdirect reporter or E. coli PNP gene expression specifically to melanomacells, as shown in U.S. Pat. No. 6,017,896, FIG. 3 and likewise operateswith Tv-PNP or tm-PNP.

Therefore, human tyrosinase sequences are useful to direct Tv-PNP ortm-PNP expression to human melanoma cells. These same sequences areuseful to direct other therapeutic gene expression in melanoma cells ormelanocytes. Other tissue-specific genetic regulatory sequences andelements can be used to direct expression of a gene encoding a suitablepurine analog nucleoside cleavage enzyme to specific cell types otherthan melanomas.

Delivery of the Tv-PNP or Tm-PNP Gene

The construction of suitable recombinant viruses and the use ofadenovirus for the transfer of Tv-PNP or tm-PNP into mammalian cells areprovided. Non-viral gene delivery can also be used. Examples includediffusion of DNA in the absence of any carriers or stabilizers (“nakedDNA”), DNA in the presence of pharmacologic stabilizers or carriers(“formulated DNA”), DNA complexed to proteins that facilitate entry intothe cell (“molecular conjugates”), or DNA complexed to lipids. The useof lipid-mediated delivery of the bacterial PNP gene to mammalian cellsis exemplified herein. More particularly, cationic liposome-mediatedtransfer of a plasmid containing a non-human PNP gene is demonstrated.Other gene transfer methods are also generally applicable because theparticular method for transferring the Tv-PNP gene to a cell is notsolely determinative of successful target cell inhibition. Thus, genetransduction utilizing a virus-derived transfer vector, furtherdescribed below, can also be used. Such methods are well known andreadily adaptable for use in the gene-mediated toxin therapies describedherein.

The method of delivery of the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene depends on its form,and a suitable method will be apparent to one skilled in the art. Suchmethods illustratively include administration by injection, biolistictransformation, and lipofection. The use of lipid-mediated delivery ofthe PNP gene to mammalian cells is exemplified herein. Moreparticularly, cationic liposome-mediated transfer of a plasmidcontaining a non-human PNP gene is demonstrated. However, other genetransfer methods will also be applicable because the particular methodfor transferring the PNP gene to a cell is not solely determinative ofsuccessful tumor cell impairment. Thus, gene transduction, utilizing avirus-derived transfer vector, further described below, can also beused. Such methods are well known and readily adaptable for use in thegene-mediated toxin therapies described herein. Further, these methodscan be used to target certain diseases and cell populations by using thetargeting characteristics of a particular carrier of the gene encoding asuitable purine analog nucleoside cleavage enzyme such as Tv-PNP ortm-PNP.

Apathogenic anaerobic bacteria have been used to selectively deliverforeign genes into tumor cells. For example, Clostridium acetobutylicumspores injected intravenously into mice bearing tumors germinated onlyin the necrotic areas of tumors that had low oxygen tension. Using theassay for PNP activity described below, Clostridium perfringens wasfound to exhibit enzyme activity capable of converting MeP-dR to MeP.This finding suggests a mechanism to selectively express PNP activity intumor masses with necrotic, anaerobic centers. Thus, tumors can beinfected with strains of Clostridium expressing Tv-PNP or tm-PNP andthen exposed to an appropriate substrate, such as fludarabine. The PNPactivity of the clostridium bacteria growing in the anaerobic center ofthe tumor tissue then converts the substrate to a toxic purine analog,which then is released locally to impair the tumor cells. Additionally,other bacteria including E. coli and Salmonella can optionally be usedto deliver a Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene into tumors.

Other delivery systems operable in the present invention illustrativelyinclude vehicles such as “stealth” and other antibody-conjugatedliposomes (including lipid-mediated drug targeting to coloniccarcinoma), receptor-mediated targeting of DNA through cell specificligands, lymphocyte-directed tumor targeting, and highly specifictherapeutic retroviral targeting of murine glioma cells in vivo. (S. K.Huang et al., Cancer Research, 52:6774-6781 (1992); R. J. Debs et al.,Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 135:731-737 (1987); K. Maruyama et al., Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87:5744-5748 (1990); P. Pinnaduwage and L. Huang,Biochemistry, 31:2850-2855 (1992); A. Gabizon and Papahadjopoulas, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 85:6949-6953 (1988); S. Rosenberg et al., NewEngland J. Med., 323:570-578 (1990); K. Culver et al., Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA, 88:3155-3159 (1991); G. Y. Wu and C. H. Wu, J. Biol. Chem.,263, No. 29:14621-14624 (1988); Wagner et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA, 87:3410-3414 (1990); Curiel et al., Human Gene Ther., 3:147-154(1992); Litzinger, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1104:179-187 (1992);Trubetskoy et al., Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1131:311-313 (1992)).The present approach, within the context of a gene targeting mechanismeither directed toward dividing tumor cells or tumor neovascularization,offers an improved methodology by which a small subset of tumor cellscan be established within a growing tumor mass, which would mediaterapid tumor involution and necrosis after the appropriate signal, suchas after administration of the substrate prodrug for a T. vaginalispurine analog nucleoside cleavage enzyme or tm-PNP present in, orproximal to, the target cells.

Methods of Treatment

The method of treatment illustratively includes transfecting orotherwise administering an inventive Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene to cellsalong with exposing the cells with the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene or proteinto an appropriate substrate. The substrate is converted to a toxicpurine analog that inhibits or kills the cells expressing the Tv-PNP ortm-PNP gene as well as those bystander cells in the vicinity of theTv-PNP or tm-PNP gene expressing cells, depending on cytotoxic purineanalog concentration. The Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene is illustrativelyadministered directly to the targeted cells or systemically incombination with a targeting composition, such as through the selectionof a particular viral vector or delivery formulation. Cells arepreferably treated in vivo, within the patient to be treated, or treatedin vitro, then injected into the patient. Following introduction of theTv-PNP or tm-PNP gene into cells in the patient, the prodrug isadministered, systemically or locally, in an effective amount to beconverted by the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP into a cytotoxic purine analogrelative to targeted cells. It is appreciated that the prodrug isoptionally delivered prior to, along with, or subsequent to theadministration of the inventive Tv-PNP or tm-PNP. Preferably, theprodrug is administered subsequent to administration of the Tv-PNP ortm-PNP.

Owing to difficulties in transfecting large numbers of target cells oradministering Tv-PNP or tm-PNP enzyme, the cleavage kinetics of thisenzyme relative to other PNPs provides surprisingly beneficialtherapeutic results with substrates of clinical importance such asF-araA.

Treatment of Tumors

The Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene is optionally used as part of a strategy totreat metastatic solid tumors, such as melanoma, pancreatic, liver orcolonic carcinoma. In this method, plasmid DNA containing a Tv-PNP ortm-PNP gene under the control of tumor specific promoters is optionallyused. For example, the tyrosinase promoter is highly specific formediating expression in melanoma cells and does not lead to geneexpression in most tissue types. The Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene underregulatory control of this promoter is activated predominantly within amelanoma tumor and not elsewhere within a patient as evidenced for E.coli PNP in U.S. Pat. No. 6,017,896. Promoters specific for other tumortypes, for example, promoters active in the rapidly dividing endothelialcells present in all solid tumors are used to specifically activateTv-PNP or tm-PNP only within a primary or metastatic tumor. In thisprocess, plasmid DNA containing Tv-PNP or tm-PNP under the control of atumor specific promoter is delivered to cells using cationic liposomes.For example, based on animal studies, 100-400 mg plasmid DNA complexedto 1200-3600 micromoles of a 1:1 mixture of the lipids DOTMA(1,2-dioleyloxypropyhl-3-trimethyl ammonium bromide) and DOPE (dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine) could be used to deliver the Tv-PNP or tm-PNPgene to tumor metastases in patients. A prodrug in the above describedamounts can then be administered. The medical treatment of tumors can beperformed for financial and therapeutic benefit.

The Tv-PNP gene is optionally used to activate prodrugs for treatment ofhuman brain cancer. In this process, a cell line producing retroviralparticles containing the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene is injected into acentral nervous system (CNS) tumor within a patient. An MRI scanner isoperable to appropriately inject the retroviral producer cell linewithin the tumor mass. Because the retrovirus is fully active onlywithin dividing cells and most of the dividing cells within the craniumof a cancer patient are within the tumor, the retrovirus is primarilyactive in the tumor itself, rather than in non-malignant cells withinthe brain. Clinical features of the patient including tumor size andlocalization determine the amount of producer cells to be injected. Forexample, a volume of producer cells in the range of 30 injections of 100microliters each (total volume 3 ml with approximately 1×10⁸ producercells/ml injected) are given under stereotactic guidance for surgicallyinaccessible tumors. For tumors that can be approached intraoperatively,100 μl aliquots are injected (at about 1×10⁸ cells/ml) with totalinjected volumes up to 10 ml using Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene transfer,followed by F-araAMP (a prodrug of F-araA) administration. This strategyis designed to permit both bystander killing and toxicity tonon-dividing cells and is designed for much greater tumor involutionthan previous attempts using HSV dThd kinase and ganciclovir.

Destruction of selected populations of cells is achieved by targetingthe delivery of the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene. The natural tropism orphysiology of viral vectors is exploited in targeting specific celltypes. For example, retroviruses demonstrate increased activity inreplicating cells. Selective retroviral-mediated gene transfer toreplicating cancer cells growing within a site where the normal(nonmalignant) cells are not replicating is a therapeutically powerfultargeting method in both animal and human clinical studies.Alternatively, the viral vector is directly administered to a specificsite such as a solid tumor thereby concentrating gene transfer to thetumor cells as opposed to surrounding tissues. This concept of selectivedelivery has been demonstrated in the delivery of genes to tumors inmice by adenovirus vectors. Molecular conjugates can be developed sothat the receptor binding ligand will bind only to selective cell types,as has been demonstrated for the lectin-mediated targeting of lungcancer.

Targeting a gene encoding a Tv-PNP or tm-PNP or expression of the geneto a small fraction of the cells in a tumor mass followed by substrateadministration is adequate to mediate involution of tumor stasis orreduction.

Treatment of Virally Infected Cells

In addition to inhibiting, and often killing tumor cells, the processesdescribed herein can also be used to kill virally infected cells. In avirus-killing embodiment, the selected gene transfer method is chosenfor its ability to target the expression of the cleavage enzyme invirally infected cells. For example, virally infected cells utilizespecial viral gene sequences to regulate and permit gene expression suchas virus specific promoters. Such sequences are not present inuninfected cells. The Tv-PNP or tm-PNP gene is oriented appropriatelywith regard to such a viral promoter to generate selective expression ofthe cleavage enzyme within virally infected cells. The virally infectedcells thereby are susceptible to the administration of F-araA or othersubstrates designed to be converted to toxic form.

Administration of Genetically Engineered Cells

Also provided is a host cell transformed with a vector of the presentinvention.

For certain applications, cells that receive the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP geneare selected and administered to a patient. This method most commonlyinvolves ex vivo transfer of the gene encoding the Tv-PNP or tm-PNPcleavage enzyme. The cells that receive the inventive genes areadministered into the host patient where they produce the therapeuticprotein until the prodrug, such as F-araA, is administered to eliminatethe engineered cells. This method is useful in cell therapies such asthose used on non-replicating myoblasts engineered for the production oftyrosine hydroxylase within the brain (Jiao et al., Nature, 362:450(1993)).

Direct Delivery of the PNP Enzyme to Cells

Tv-PNP or tm-PNP protein with or without a prodrug is optionallydelivered directly to target cells rather than the Tv-PNP or tm-PNPgene. Illustratively, a Tv-PNP or tm-PNP enzyme capable of cleavingpurine analog nucleosides is manufactured by available recombinantprotein techniques using a commercially available kit. As one example ofa method for producing the bacterial Tv-PNP protein, the Tv-PNP codingsequence is ligated into the multiple cloning site of pGEX-4T-1(Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.) so as to be “in frame” with theglutathione-s-transferase (GST) fusion protein using standard techniques(note that the cloning site of this vector allows insertion of codingsequences in all three possible translational reading frames tofacilitate this step). The resulting plasmid contains the GST-PNP fusioncoding sequence under transcriptional control of the IPTG-inducibleprokaryotic tac promoter. T. vaginalis cells are transformed with therecombinant plasmid and the tac promoter induced with IPTG. IPTG-inducedcells are lysed, and the GST-PNP fusion protein purified by affinitychromatography on a glutathione Sepharose 4B column. The GST-PNP fusionprotein is eluted, and the GST portion of the molecule is removed bythrombin cleavage. All of these techniques and reagents are commerciallyavailable (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.). Other methods for recombinantprotein production are described in detail in published laboratorymanuals.

Since the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP activates prodrugs into diffusible toxins,delivery the PNP protein to the exterior of the target cells prior toprodrug administration is operative to induce a therapeutic effect. TheTv-PNP or tm-PNP protein is deliverable to target cells by a widevariety of techniques. One example is the direct application of theprotein with or without a carrier to a target tissue such as by directlyinjecting a tumor mass within an accessible site. Another example is theattachment of the Tv-PNP or tm-PNP protein to a monoclonal antibody thatrecognizes an antigen at the tumor site. (Villa et al., “A high-affinityhuman monoclonal antibody specific to the alternatively spliced EDAdomain of fibronectin efficiently targets tumor neo-vasculature invivo.” Int. J. Cancer. 2008 Jun. 1; 122(11):2405-13. Nissim et al.,“Historical development of monoclonal antibody therapeutics.” Handbookof Exp. Pharmacol. 2008; (181):3-18.)

Methods for attaching functional proteins to monoclonal antibodies havebeen previously described. The Tv-PNP or tm-PNP conjugated monoclonalantibody is systemically administered, for example intravenously (IV),and attaches specifically to the target tissue. Subsequent systemicadministration of the prodrug will result in the local production ofdiffusible toxin in the vicinity of the tumor site. A number of studiesdemonstrated the use of this technology to target specific proteins totumor tissue. Other ligands, in addition to monoclonal antibodies, canbe selected for their specificity for a target cell and tested accordingto the methods taught herein.

Protein delivery to specific targets is optionally achieved usingliposomes. Methods for producing liposomes are described (e.g.,Liposomes: A Practical Approach). Liposomes can be targeted to specificsites by the inclusion of specific ligands or antibodies in theirexterior surface. An illustrative example is specific liver cellpopulations targeted by the inclusion of asialofetuin in the liposomalsurface (Van Berkel et al., Targeted Diagnosis and Therapy, 5:225-249(1991)). Specific liposomal formulations can also achieve targeteddelivery as best exemplified by the so-called Stealth liposomes thatpreferentially deliver drugs to implanted tumors (Allen, Liposomes inthe Therapy of Infectious Diseases and Cancer, 405-415 (1989)). Afterthe liposomes have been injected or implanted, unbound liposome iscleared from the blood, and the patient is treated with the purineanalog prodrug, such as F-araA, which is cleaved by the Tv-PNP at thetargeted site. Again, this procedure requires only the availability ofan appropriate targeting vehicle. In a broader sense, the strategy oftargeting can be extended to specific delivery of the prodrug followingeither PNP protein, or gene delivery.

Alternatively, a compound is a biologically active polypeptide fragmentof Tv-PNP protein which is administered to a subject. A biologicallyactive peptide or peptide fragment optionally is a mutant form ofTv-PNP. It is appreciated that mutation of the conserved amino acid atany particular site is preferably mutated to glycine or alanine. It isfurther appreciated that mutation to any neutrally charged, charged,hydrophobic, hydrophilic, synthetic, non-natural, non-human, or otheramino acid is similarly operable. A still more preferred mutant involvesa frame shift mutation to remove the terminal stop codon TAA and insteadexpress a tailed mutant Tv-PNP (tmTv-PNP).

Modifications and changes are optionally made in the structure (primary,secondary, or tertiary) of the wild-type Tv-PNP protein which areencompassed within the inventive compound that may or may not result ina molecule having similar characteristics to the exemplary polypeptidesdisclosed herein. It is appreciated that changes in conserved amino acidresidues are most likely to impact the activity of the resultantprotein. However, it is further appreciated that changes in amino acidsoperable for ligand interaction, resistance or promotion of proteindegradation, intracellular or extracellular trafficking, secretion,protein-protein interaction, post-translational modification such asglycosylation, phosphorylation, sulfation, and the like, may result inincreased or decreased activity of an inventive compound while retainingsome ability to alter or maintain a physiological activity. Certainamino acid substitutions for other amino acids in a sequence are knownto occur without appreciable loss of activity.

In making such changes, the hydropathic index of amino acids areconsidered. According to the present invention, certain amino acids canbe substituted for other amino acids having a similar hydropathic indexand still result in a polypeptide with similar biological activity. Eachamino acid is assigned a hydropathic index on the basis of itshydrophobicity and charge characteristics. Those indices are: isoleucine(+4.5); valine (+4.2); leucine (+3.8); phenylalanine (+2.8);cysteine/cysteine (+2.5); methionine (+1.9); alanine (+1.8); glycine(−0.4); threonine (−0.7); serine (−0.8); tryptophan (−0.9); tyrosine(−1.3); proline (−1.6); histidine (−3.2); glutamate (−3.5); glutamine(−3.5); aspartate (−3.5); asparagine (−3.5); lysine (−3.9); and arginine(−4.5).

Without intending to be limited to a particular theory, it is believedthat the relative hydropathic character of the amino acid determines thesecondary structure of the resultant polypeptide, which in turn definesthe interaction of the polypeptide with other molecules. It is known inthe art that an amino acid can be substituted by another amino acidhaving a similar hydropathic index and still obtain a functionallyequivalent polypeptide. In such changes, the substitution of amino acidswhose hydropathic indices are within ±2 is preferred, those within ±1are particularly preferred, and those within ±0.5 are even moreparticularly preferred.

As outlined above, amino acid substitutions are generally based on therelative similarity of the amino acid side-chain substituents, forexample, their hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, charge, size, and thelike. Exemplary substitutions that take various of the foregoingcharacteristics into consideration are well known to those of skill inthe art and include (original residue: exemplary substitution): (Ala:Gly, Ser), (Arg: Lys), (Asn: Gln, His), (Asp: Glu, Cys, Ser), (Gln:Asn), (Glu: Asp), (Gly: Ala), (His: Asn, Gln), (Ile: Leu, Val), (Leu:Ile, Val), (Lys: Arg), (Met: Leu, Tyr), (Ser: Thr), (Thr: Ser), (Tip:Tyr), (Tyr: Trp, Phe), and (Val: Ile, Leu). Embodiments of thisdisclosure thus contemplate functional or biological equivalents of apolypeptide as set forth above. In particular, embodiments of thepolypeptides can include variants having about 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%,and 95% sequence identity to the polypeptide of interest.

It is further appreciated that any nucleic acid substitution in the geneencoding Tv-PNP or a fragment thereof operable to produce any of theabove described amino acid substitutions or to act as a silent mutationsuch as to produce a synonymous codon are similarly operable herein.Such substitutions and methods for their production are readilyrecognized by those of skill in the art.

A tm-PNP has been surprisingly found to have greater cleavage activityrelative to the corresponding wild-type PNP for a given organism. Atm-PNP according to the present invention preferably involves a frameshift mutation within the terminal 150 nucleic acid bases associatedwith the PNP nucleotide sequence such that a termination codon common toall known PNP wild-type sequences is suppressed through a frame shiftand a terminal tail added to the expressed tm-PNP amino acid sequence,the tail having between 10 and 50 additional amino acid residues. It isappreciated that the frame shift in the wild-type PNP nucleotidesequence is readily produced through insertion or deletion of one ormore nucleotide bases with the proviso that the nucleotide baseinsertions or deletions are not a multiple of 3 upstream from thetermination codon. The resultant tail corresponds to amino acid codingfrom adjacent PNP nucleotide sequence region relative to the wild-typenucleotide sequence stop codon or is added. The hydropathic index valueof the tail of a tm-PNP and the tail length between 10 and 50 amino acidresidues in length appear to be important factors in the preferentialcleavage such tm-PNP enzymes exert over the clinically important prodrugsubstrate of F-araA relative to MeP-dR. Without intending to be bound toa particular theory, it is believed that the tail of an inventive tm-PNPmodifies access of ligand to the tm-PNP prodrug binding site relative tothe wild-type enzyme.

Administration of Substrates

The formula of Freidenreich et al., Cancer Chemother. Rep., 50:219-244,(1966) is optionally used to determine the maximum tolerated dose ofsubstrate for a human subject. For example, mice systemicallyadministered 25 mg (MeP-dR) per kg per day for 9 days (9 doses total)resulted in some toxicity but no lethality. From this result a humandosage of 75 mg MeP-dR/m² was determined according to the formula: 25mg/kg×3=75 mg/m². This amount or slightly less is expected to maximizetumor cell killing in humans without killing the subject therebygenerating a favorable efficacy to safety profile. This standard ofeffectiveness is accepted in the field of cancer therapy. Morepreferably, a drug levels administered range from about 10% to 1% of themaximum tolerated dosage (for example, 7.5 mg/m²-0.75 mg/m²). It isunderstood that modes of administration that permit the substrate toremain localized at or near the site of the tumor will be effective atlower doses than systemically administered substrates.

The substrate may be administered orally, parenterally (for example,intravenously), by intramuscular injection, by intratumoral injection,by intraperitoneal injection, or transdermally. The exact amount ofsubstrate required will vary from subject to subject, depending on age,weight, general condition of the subject, the severity of the diseasethat is being treated, the location and size of the tumor, theparticular compound used, its mode of administration, and the like. Anappropriate amount may be determined by one of ordinary skill in the artusing only routine experimentation given the teachings herein.Generally, dosage will preferably be in the range of about 0.5-50 mg/m²,when considering MeP-dR for example, or a functional equivalent. For aprodrug such a fludarbine, the dosage will typically be at, or belowdoses already known to be safe in the subject.

Depending on the intended mode of administration, the substrate can beadministered in pharmaceutical compositions in the form of solid,semi-solid or liquid dosage forms, such as, for example, tablets,suppositories, pills, capsules, powders, liquids, or suspensions,preferably in unit dosage form suitable for single administration of aprecise dosage. The compositions will include an effective amount of theselected substrate in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptablecarrier and, in addition, may include other medicinal agents,pharmaceutical agents, carriers, or diluents. The term “pharmaceuticallyacceptable” as used herein refers to a material that is not biologicallyor otherwise undesirable, which can be administered to an individualalong with the selected substrate without causing significantundesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious mannerwith any of the other components of the pharmaceutical composition inwhich it is contained.

For solid compositions, conventional nontoxic solid carriers include,for example, pharmaceutical grades of mannitol, lactose, starch,magnesium stearate, sodium saccharine, talc, cellulose, glucose, sucroseand magnesium carbonate. Liquid pharmaceutically administrablecompositions can, for example, be prepared by dissolving or dispersingan active compound with optimal pharmaceutical adjuvants in anexcipient, such as water, saline, aqueous dextrose, glycerol, ethanol,and the like to thereby form a solution or suspension. If desired, thepharmaceutical composition to be administered may also contain minoramounts of nontoxic auxiliary substances such as wetting or emulsifyingagents, pH buffering agents, for example, sodium acetate ortriethanolamine oleate. Actual methods of preparing such dosage formsare known, or will be apparent, to those skilled in this art; forexample, see Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences.

For oral administration, fine powders or granules may contain diluting,dispersing, and/or surface active agents, and may be presented in wateror in a syrup, in capsules or sachets in the dry state or in anon-aqueous solution or suspension wherein suspending agents may beincluded, in tablets wherein binders and lubricants may be included, orin a suspension in water or a syrup. Where desirable or necessary,flavoring, preserving, suspending, thickening, or emulsifying agents maybe included. Tablets and granules are preferred oral administrationforms, and these may be coated.

Parenteral administration is generally by injection. Injectables can beprepared in conventional forms, either liquid solutions or suspensions,solid forms suitable for solution or prior to injection, or assuspension in liquid prior to injection or as emulsions.

Vectors Containing Tv-PNP Encoding Nucleic Acids

The present invention provides a vector containing a DNA sequenceencoding a Tv-PNP. The vector may further contain a regulatory elementoperably linked to the nucleotide sequence such that the nucleotidesequence is transcribed and translated in a host. Preferably, the vectoris a virus or a plasmid. Illustrative examples of suitable viral vectorsinclude a retrovirus, an adenovirus, an adeno-associated virus, avaccinia virus, a herpes virus and a chimeric viral construction such asan adeno-retroviral vector. Among useful adenovirus vectors are humanadenoviruses such as type 2 or 5 and adenoviruses of animal originillustratively including those of avian, bovine, canine, murine, ovine,porcine or simian origin.

The use of vectors derived from adeno-associated virus for the transferof genes in vitro and in vivo has been extensively described, forexample in U.S. Pat. No. 4,797,368 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,139,941. Ingeneral, the rep and/or cap genes are deleted and replaced by the geneto be transferred. Recombinant viral particles are prepared bycotransfection of two plasmids into a cell line infected with a humanhelper virus. The plasmids transfected include a first plasmidcontaining a nucleic acid sequence encoding a PNP of the presentinvention which is flanked by two inverted repeat regions of the virus,and a second plasmid carrying the encapsidation genes (rep and cap) ofthe virus. The recombinant viral particles are then purified by standardtechniques.

PNP Expression

The Tv-PNP enzymes of the present invention are transcribed andtranslated in vivo and in vitro. In order to produce the proteins invivo, a vector containing nucleic acids encoding a specific Tv-PNP isintroduced into cells, in vivo or ex vivo. This may includereintroduction of cells back into the animal, via a vector as outlinedherein. In another embodiment, the protein of interest is produced invitro, either in a cell or in a cell-free system. Protein produced inthis manner is used in vitro or introduced into a cell or animal toproduce a desired result.

Expression of a Tv-PNP in mammalian cells may require a eukaryotictranscriptional regulatory sequence linked to the Tv-PNP-encodingsequences. The Tv-PNP gene can be expressed under the control of strongconstitutive promoter/enhancer elements that are contained withincommercial plasmids (for example, the SV40 early promoter/enhancer(pSVK30 Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.), Moloney murine sarcoma virus longterminal repeat (pBPV, Pharmacia), mouse mammary tumor virus longterminal repeat (pMSG, Pharmacia), and the cytomegalovirus earlypromoter/enhancer (pCMVβ, Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.).

Other tissue-specific genetic regulatory sequences and elements can beused to direct expression of a gene encoding a suitable purine analognucleoside cleavage enzyme to specific cell types other than melanomas,for example, tissue-specific promoters illustratively including apromoter of albumin, intestinal fatty acid binding protein, milk whey,neurofilament, pyruvate kinase, smooth muscle alpha-actin and villin.

The following non-limiting examples illustrate specific reaction schemesand specific inventive compounds and intermediates according to thepresent invention. Methods involving conventional biological techniquesare described herein. Such techniques are generally known in the art andare described in detail in methodology treatises such as MolecularCloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed., vol. 1-3, ed. Sambrook et al.,Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y., 1989;and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, ed. Ausubel et al., GreenePublishing and Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1992 (with periodicupdates). Immunological methods (e.g., preparation of antigen-specificantibodies, immunoprecipitation, and immunoblotting) are described,e.g., in Current Protocols in Immunology, ed. Coligan et al., John Wiley& Sons, New York, 1991; and Methods of Immunological Analysis, ed.Masseyeff et al., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992.

Various aspects of the present invention are illustrated by thefollowing non-limiting examples. The examples are for illustrativepurposes and are not a limitation on any practice of the presentinvention. It will be understood that variations and modifications canbe made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.While the examples are generally directed to mammalian cells, tissue,fluids, or subjects, a person having ordinary skill in the artrecognizes that similar techniques and other techniques known in the artreadily translate the examples to other mammals such as humans. Reagentsillustrated herein are commonly cross reactive between mammalian speciesor alternative reagents with similar properties are commerciallyavailable, and a person of ordinary skill in the art readily understandswhere such reagents may be obtained.

Substrate Selection

Suitable substrates are characterized by being relatively nontoxic to amammalian cell compared to the cytotoxic cleaved purine base analog.Below are listed some illustrative examples of substrates. Commonabbreviation(s) are included after some of the compounds and offset by asemicolon:

-   9-(13-D-arabino furanosyl)-2-fluoroadenine; F-araA, fludarabine-   9-(2-deoxy-13-D-ribo furanosyl]-6-methylpurine; MeP-dR-   9-(β-D-ribofuranosyl)-2-amino-6-chloro-1-deazapurine; ACDP-R-   7-(β-D-ribofuranosyl)-3-deazaguanine-   2-fluoro-2′-deoxyadenosine; F-dAdo-   9-(5-deoxy-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   2-fluoro-5′-deoxyadenosine-   2-chloro-2′-deoxyadenosine; Cl-dAdo, Cladribine-   5′-amino-5′-deoxy-2-fluoroadenosine-   9-(5-amino-5-deoxy-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(α-D-ribofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(2,3-dideoxy-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   2′,3′-dideoxy-2-fluoroadenosine-   9-(3-deoxy-13-D-ribofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine-   2-fluoro-3′-deoxyadenosine-   9-(α-L-lyxofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(α-L-lyxofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(6-deoxy-β-D-allofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(6-deoxy-β-D-allofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(6-deoxy-α-L-talofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(6-deoxy-α-L-talofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(2,6-dideoxy-β-D-allofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(2,6-dideoxy-β-D-allofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(2,6-dideoxy-α-L-talofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(2,6-dideoxy-α-L-talofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(6,7-dideoxy-α-L-hept-6-ynofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(6,7-dideoxy-α-L-hept-6-ynofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(6,7-dideoxy-β-D-hept-6-ynofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(6,7-dideoxy-β-D-hept-6-ynofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(2,6,7-trideoxy-α-L-hept-6-ynofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(2,6,7-trideoxy-α-L-hept-6-ynofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(2,6,7-trideoxy-β-D-hept-6-ynofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(2,6,7-trideoxy-β-D-hept-6-ynofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(2,3-dideoxy-3-hydroxymethyl-α-D-ribofuranosyl)-6-thioguanine-   9-(5,5-di-C-methyl-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-2-fluoro-adenine-   9-(5,5-di-C-methyl-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(5-deoxy-5-iodo-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(5-deoxy-5-iodo-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine-   9-(5-deoxy-5-methylthio-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine-   9-(5-deoxy-5-methylthio-β-D-ribofuranosyl)-6-methylpurine    Further examples are found in Ichikawa E. and Kato K., Curr. Med.    Chem. 2001 March; 8(4): 385-423.

It is appreciated that some substrates would be expected to be bettertolerated than others. For example, F-araA is cleaved at a faster rateby Tv-PNP as compared to other known enzymes so as to provide greatertherapeutic options.

Example 1 Synthesis of Tv-PNP Expression Vectors

T. vaginalis genomic DNA is obtained with a first DNA clone frommetronidazole-resistant strain (R: CDC955) and a second DNA clone fromsensitive strain (S3: CDC520). TvPNP gene is amplified by PCR usingfollowing primers from both samples using AccuPrime Pfx supermix(Invitrogen). The primers are designed based on the TvPNP sequencedownloaded from TIGR trichomonas genome project web site. The sequenceis currently available at GenBank (XM_(—)001323400). Tv-PNP primers usedherein included with parenthetical restriction sites therein: forwardprimer TvPNP-F: 5′-GTTAACGGATCCATGGCAACACCCCATAACTCTGCT-3′ (HpaI &BamHI) (SEQ ID NO: 1). Tv-PNP reverse primers TvPNP-R:5′-TCTAGAGTTAACGTCCTTATAATTTGATTGCTGCTTC-3′ (XbaI & HpaI) (SEQ ID NO: 2)and TvPNP-R1: 5′-ATAGTTTAGATCCGAGGACCAATCAT-3′ (SEQ ID NO. 3). Thenucleotide sequence of wild-type Tv-PNP is illustrated as SEQ ID NO: 4.The amino acid sequence of wild-type Tv-PNP is SEQ ID NO: 5.

The first round of PCR is performed using TvPNP-F and Tv-PNPR1 primers.Then nested PCR (second round) is performed using the product from thefirst round PCR and primers TvPNP-F and TvPNP-R. The PCR product iscloned into pCR4Blunt-Topo vector (Invitrogen) and sequenced (cloneID=pCR4 Blunt-TvPNP) as depicted in FIG. 3. S strain contains one basechange from the TIGR sequence, but it does not change the codon Arg102(CGC->CGT). Since the R clone matches the TIGR sequence, the TvPNP(R)clone is used for further cloning. To generate adenovirus expressingTvPNP, TvPNP(R) of FIG. 3 is digested with EcoRI and XbaI and clonedinto EcoRI and XbaI sites of pACCMV.pLpA adenovirus transfer vector. ThepACCMV-TvPNP as depicted in FIG. 4 is co-transfected with pJM17(Microbix) to obtain recombinant Ad-TvPNP via homologous recombinationin 293 cells. The resulting Ad-TvPNP is identified by Tv-PNP specificPCR and Tv-PNP activity assay.

Two different vectors are used to generate Lenti-TvPNP viruses. TvPNP(R)as depicted in FIG. 3 is cloned into a modified pWPI vector (originallyfrom Addgene.org; that is modified to contain more restriction sites forcloning purpose (pWPI-linker(+))). pWPI vector expresses enhanced greenfluorescent protein (EGFP) under internal ribosome entry site (IRES)control. TvPNP(R) is isolated from pCR4Blunt-TvPNP using PmeI and XbaIthen cloned into SnaBI and Spel sites of pWPI-linker(+) vector of FIG.5. PmeI and SnaBI are blunt end cut and XbaI and Spel generate the sameoverhangs.

TvPNP(R) is separately cloned into pHR′CMV Luc W Sin-18 vector (per J.Bio. Chem., Published on Oct. 1, 2004 as Manuscript M410370200) in placeof luciferase gene to generate cell lines expressing TvPNP withoutcoexpressing EGFP. TvPNP(R) is isolated from pCR4Blunt-TvPNP using BamHIand HpaI then cloned into BamHI and XhoI (blunt ended using Klenowfragment) sites of pHR′CMV Luc W Sin-18 vector depicted in FIG. 6.

Example 2 Identifying Candidate Prodrugs for Tv-PNP Enzymes

The following method is useful to identify substrates that are cleavedmore efficiently by the wild-type Tv-PNP than by wild-type E. coli PNPor other PNPs. Prodrugs identified by this method can then be furtherassessed in animal studies for determination of toxicity, suitabilityfor administration with various pharmaceutical carriers, and otherpharmacological properties.

The method quantitatively measures the cleavage of substrates in vitro.The purine analog nucleosides (0.1 mM in 500 μl of 100 mM HEPES, pH 7.4,50 mM potassium phosphate) are combined with 100 μg/ml Tv-PNP orwild-type E. coli PNP. The reaction mixtures are incubated at 25° C. for1 hour, and the reactions stopped by boiling each sample for 2 minutes.Protein concentration and time of assay are varied depending on activityof enzyme for a particular substrate. Each sample is analyzed by reversephase HPLC to measure conversion from substrate to product. Thenucleoside and purine analogs are eluted from a Spherisorb ODSI (5 μm)column (Keystone Scientific, Inc., State College, Pa.) with a solventcontaining 50 mM ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (95%) and acetonitrile(5%). Products are detected by absorbance at 254 nm, and are identifiedby comparing their retention times and absorption spectra with authenticcontrol samples.

Table 1 shows the activity of wild-type E. coli PNP enzyme in comparisonto wild-type Tv-PNP in the presence of various substrates. Numerouscompounds are tested for efficiency as substrate for Tv-PNP in parallelcomparison with E. coli PNP. The compounds include various analogs ofadenosine, of inosine, of MeP-dR, and of fluoro- or chloro-substitutedadenosine. The enzymes are incubated with 100 micromolar of eachcompound listed in the table and the rate of enzymatic cleavage isdetermined by HPLC separation of the base from the nucleoside. As shownin Table 1, Tv-PNP cleaves F-araA at a rate (32,000 nanomoles permilligrams per hour) that is approximately 23-times the rate that E.coli PNP cleaves F-araA (1,250 nanomoles per milligrams per hour). Theresult is further confirmed as shown in FIG. 1 that the catalyticefficiency of Tv-PNP with F-araA is 25-fold that of the catalyticefficiency of E. coli PNP with F-araA (V_(max)/K_(m) of 944 vs. 38). Itis appreciated that the greater biological activity of the Tv-PNP enzymeallows for greater activity in impairing abnormal cell growth when theTv-PNP is used for treatment of pathological conditions using F-araA asa prodrug substrate. Since F-araA is reported to cause completeresponses in tumor expressing wild-type E. coli PNP enzyme, an at least23-fold increase in the generation of toxic F-Ade using the wild-typeTv-PNP and F-araA combination leads to improved anti-tumor activity.

It is also noted from Table 1 that Tv-PNP has greater activities towards2-C1-2′-deoxyadenosine (C1-dAdo, cladribine) when compared to E. coliPNP. The Tv-PNP cleaves Cl-dAdo at a specific activity of 320,000nanomoles per milligram per hour whereas the same Cl-dAdo is cleaved byE. coli at a specific activity of only 39,000 nanomoles per milligramper hour.

TABLE 1 Comparison of substrate activity of Tv-PNP and Wild-type E. coliPNP; a “—” represents no detected cleavage. Substrate T. vaginalis PNPE. coli PNP Adenosine 501,000 398,000 9-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-adenine38,000 610 9-β-D-xylofuranosyl-adenine 2 <2 3′-deoxyadenosine(cordycepin) 2,000 <2 2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine 640 <2 5′-deoxyadenosine50,000 8,400 5′-amino-5′-deoxyadenosine 4,200 540 5′-carboxamide ofadenosine 33 <1 9-β-D-pyranosyl-adenine 2 <1 2′-O^(methyl)-adenosine <10<1 9-α-L-lyxofuranosyl-adenine 22,000 3,700 Inosine 154,000 342,0002′-deoxyinosine 660,000 733,000 9-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-hypoxanthine 4861 9-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-guanine 16 310 7-β-D-ribosyl-hypoxanthine2,300 5,200 7-β-D-ribosyl-6-thioguanine 435 66 Guanosine 14,000 156,0009-β-D-ribofuranosyl-6-methylpurine 155,000 96,0009-[5-deoxy-β-D-ribofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine 3,600 4069-[2-deoxy-β-D-ribofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine 484,000 528,0009-[β-D-arabinofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine 570 149-[2-deoxy-α-D-ribofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine <8 <19-[5-methyl-(talo)-β-D-ribofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine 8,400 9159-[5-methyl-(allo)-β-D-ribofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine 223 479-[5-methyl-(talo)-2-deoxy-β-D-ribofuranosyl]-6- 103,000 3,600methylpurine 9-[5,5-dimethyl-β-D-ribofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine <8 <19-α-L-lyxofuranosyl-6-methylpurine 10,000 3207-[2-deoxy-α-L-lyxofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine <8 <19-[5-deoxy-α-L-lyxofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine 246 209-[5-deoxy-5-iodo-α-L-lyxofuranosyl]-6-methylpurine <8 <12-F-2′-deoxyadenosine (F-dAdo) 400,000 435,000 2-F-adenosine 185,000215,000 9-β-D-arabinofuranosyl-2-F-adenine (fludarabine) 32,000 1,2502-F-5′-deoxy-adenosine 50,000 29,000 9-α-L-lyxofuranosyl-2-F-adenine28,200 7,800 2-Cl-2′-deoxyadenosine (Cl-dAdo) 352,000 39,0002-Cl-2′-deoxyadenosine (β-L) <8 <1 2-Cl-2′-deoxyadenosine (α-L) <8 <1

Tv-PNP and wild-type E. coli PNP are substantially similar in bothstructure and functionality. The instant discovery and quantificationthat the Tv-PNP and E. coli differ greatly in the efficiency of cleavingprodrugs to cytotoxic compounds is contradictory to the conventionalunderstanding that Tv-PNP does not have appreciable activity towardsF-araA (Wang et al., id.), indicating the novelty of this observation.

By this analysis, Tv-PNP has more activity for fludarabine, cladribine,analog of cordycepin, analog of 2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine,5′-methyl(talo)-6-methylpurine-riboside,5′-methyl(talo)-2′-deoxy-6-methylpurine-riboside,5′-methyl(allo)-6-methylpurine-riboside, 2-F-5′-deoxyadeno sine, or2-F-α-L-lyxo-adenine as compared to wild-type E. coli PNP. Thus, thesesubstrates are preferred candidate prodrugs which are eligible forfurther assessment for use in the methods and compositions describedherein to treat a pathological condition and in particular thoseprodrugs commercially available in USP grade.

Example 3 Comparison of the Ability of Various PNPs to Cleave MeP-dR andF-araA

The relative cleavage activity of PNPs of various origins is compared todetermine the optimal enzyme for cleavage of the importantchemotherapeutics MeP-dR and F-araA by the procedure of Example 2.Enzymes of various purities are incubated with 100 μM MeP-dR or F-araAand the rate of cleavage is determined by measuring the production ofproduct (MeP or F-Ade) by HPLC as described in Example 2. The resultsare provided in Table 2.

TABLE 2 F-araA MeP-dR/ Organism MeP-dR nmoles/mg/hr F-araA human PNP 35<1 >35 T. vaginalis PNP 536,000 30,000 18 E. coli PNP 528,000 1,250 422A. areogenes PNP 6,638 10 464 A. Laidlawii PNP 6,090 19 320 Klebsiellasp PNP 11,432 32 357 Salmonella typhimurium PNP 9,150 20 458 B. cereusPNP 1,400,000 13,000 108 Tularemia PNP 4,900 18 272 T. Bruceii hydrolase750 <1 >750 E. Coli PNP mutant M65V 1823 3.9 469 tm-PNP 948 4.8 198

Example 4 30 Residue Terminal Tailed E. Coli PNP (Tm-PNP) Expression andProdrug Cleavage

A nucleotide sequence derived from wild-type E. coli PNP and noted on asequence confirmed region of nucleotide bases was cloned intopACCMV.plpA adenovirus transfer vector. This sequence varies fromwild-type E. coli PNP in lacking an adenosine base that is otherwisepresent as residue 1634 (FIG. 7). This base deletion to produce “GGTAA”in wild-type E. coli PNP would have been “GAG” (239^(th) codoncorresponding to glutamic acid) and “TAA” corresponding to terminationcodon. The resultant frame shift produces a 30 amino acid tail in placeof a glutamic acid as the terminal (239^(th) residue) of glutamic acidfound in wild-type E. coli PNP. A cogenics sequence corresponding tothis tail mutant PNP is provided in FIG. 7 with the initiation (atg) andtermination (taa) codons of the tail mutant PNP highlighted as well asthe frame shift region of the adenovirus transfer vector sequence.Otherwise, a nucleotide sequence extending between bases 919 and 1633 ofFIG. 7 corresponds to a wild-type PNP nucleotide sequence.

The amino acid sequence of the tm-PNP produced by expression of thenucleotide sequence of FIG. 7 is provided in FIG. 8. The 30 amino acidtail provided in place of the terminal glutamic acid in wild-type E.coli PNP is highlighted in FIG. 8 and is illustrated as SEQ ID NO: 8.The nucleotide sequence cloned into the adenovirus transfer vector, aportion of which is shown in SEQ ID NO: 6 includes a nucleotide sequenceextending between bases 919 and 1722 (SEQ ID NO: 7) that includes a 30amino acid tail mutant (SEQ ID NO: 8) in place of the terminal glutamicacid amino acid residue found in wild-type E. coli PNP.

The resultant tm-PNP was tested for its ability to cleave MeP-dR andF-araA as detailed in Example 3. This tm-PNP had a MeP-dR/F-araA ratioof 198. This corresponds to a wild-type E. coli PNP ratio of 422 (Table2) and represents a 2.3-fold selectivity of cleavage of F-araA.Accordingly, tm-PNP represents a preferred enzyme for use with theprodrug F-araAMP in the treatment of solid tumors.

The tm-PNP compares favorably in cleavage ability with substitutionmutants of E. coli PNP. A number of substitution mutation E. coli PNPsare detailed in WO 03/035012 and include amino acid residue valinesubstitution in place of methionine at position 65 (counting from thefMET) of the wild-type E. coli PNP protein sequence (M65V). The EcoRIand XbaI sites of pACCMV.pLpA adenovirus transfer virus ratio for M65Vthat lacks an inventive amino acid tail for purified enzyme was 593,while the enzyme expressed in tumors injected with an adenovirus vectorencoding for the substitution mutant E. coli PNP was 469±52. As with allcleavage ratio results, these results are normalized based on equimolarquantities of substrate.

In vivo efficacy experiments indicate that tm-PNP shows considerablygreater antitumoral activity relative to M65V with these differencesattributed to differential EcoRI and XbaI sites of pACCMV.pLpAadenovirus transfer vector cleavage ratio.

Example 5 24 Residue Terminal Tailed E. Coli PNP (Tm-PNP) Expression andProdrug Cleavage

The nucleotide sequence of FIG. 7 is modified to insert an adenosinebase after base 1705 to create a termination codon (TAA) with a 24 aminoacid tail added in place of glutamic acid at the terminus of wild-typeE. coli PNP. This 24 amino acid tail added tm-PNP is a cloned sequenceinto pACCMV.pLpA adenovirus transfer vector as detailed in Example 4 andis provided in SEQ ID NO: 9. The expressed amino acid sequence isprovided in SEQ ID NO: 10.

Example 6 tmTv-PNP with 30 Residue Terminal Tail

The procedure of Example 4 is repeated with a TAA deletion from Tv-PNPand added a polypeptide tail in an adenovirus expression vector. This 30amino acid tailed tmTv-PNP is a cloned sequence into pACCMV.pLpAadenovirus transfer vector as detailed in Example 4 and is provided inSEQ ID NO: 11. The expressed amino acid sequence is provided in SEQ IDNO: 12.

Any patents or publications mentioned in this specification areindicative of the levels of those skilled in the art to which theinvention pertains. These patents and publications are hereinincorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individualpublication was specifically and individually indicated to beincorporated by reference.

One skilled in the art will readily appreciate that the presentinvention is well adapted to carry out the objects and obtain the endsand advantages mentioned, as well as those inherent therein. The presentmethods, procedures, treatments, molecules, and specific compoundsdescribed herein are presently representative of preferred embodiments,are exemplary, and are not intended as limitations on the scope of theinvention. Changes therein and other uses will occur to those skilled inthe art which are encompassed within the spirit of the invention asdefined by the scope of the claims.

1. A process for inhibiting a mammalian cancerous cell or virallyinfected cell comprising: providing a Trichomonas vaginalis purinenucleoside phosphorylase enzyme in proximity to the cancerous mammaliancell or the virally infected cell; and exposing the enzyme to acleavable substrate of 9-(β-D-arabinofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine(fludarabine) to yield a cytotoxic purine analog.
 2. The process ofclaim 1 wherein providing the enzyme is by administering a viral vectorcoding a nucleotide sequence for said enzyme expressible in said cell.3. The process of claim 1 wherein providing said enzyme is by directinjection, infection, lipofection, or biolistic administration of anucleotide sequence for the enzyme expressible in the cell.
 4. Theprocess of claim 1 wherein providing said enzyme is by direct injectionof the enzyme proximal to said cell.
 5. The process of claim 1 whereinproviding said enzyme is by administration to a subject or a subjectcell modified to express Trichomonas vaginalis purine nucleosidephosphorylase.
 6. The process of claim 1 wherein providing is byintracellular delivery of an expressible nucleotide sequence encodingsaid enzyme.
 7. A composition produced by the process of claim 1comprising: mammalian cancerous or virally infected cell lysate;Trichomonas vaginalis purine nucleoside phosphorylase enzyme; and9-(β-D-arabinofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine.
 8. The composition of claim 7further comprising a viral protein.
 9. A commercial kit for inhibiting amammalian cancerous cell or virally infected cell according to claim 1comprising: a vector containing an expressible nucleotide sequencecoding for a Trichomonas vaginalis purine nucleoside phosphorylaseenzyme; and instructions for the introduction of said vector to the cellto express said Trichomoas vaginalis purine nucleoside phosphorylaseenzyme followed by administration of a purine nucleoside phosphorylaseenzyme cleavable substrate of 9-(β-D-arabinofuranosyl)-2-fluoroadenine(fludarabine) to yield a cytotoxic purine analog.
 10. The kit of claim 9wherein said vector is a retrovirus, adenovirus, herpes virus, measlesvirus, adeno-associated virus, or a vaculovirus.